Bibliography of Marine Safety
The following table lists references relevant to the subject of marine safety in Australia and New Zealand. These references are provided to give an insight into current thinking worldwide on the subject of marine safety in general and certain aspects of marine safety in particular. The contents of these references do not necessarily represent the views of the National Marine Safety Committee, nor does the NMSC necessarily endorse the views expressed in these papers. However, it is intended that the references should provide a useful resource for those concerned in maritime safety including designers, builders and survey authorities.
To search the bibliography, use the “find” or “search” function on your browser to search for a particular key word such as “fire” or “risk” or an author’s name.
Unfortunately, the NMSC Secretariat is unable to process public requests for copies of articles and publications on this bibliography. To source these publications or articles, the following options are suggested:
-
(a) Contact the publisher or author listed in the bibliography
-
(b) Contact you local library for information services that they might be able to provide.
-
(c) Contact a commercial information service such as Rapid attached to the University of NSW.
This web page will be updated from time to time. If you have access to relevant material on maritime safety which you believe would be of benefit to others in the maritime industry in Australia and New Zealand and elsewhere, please contact the National Maritime Safety Committee Secretariat on mflapan@nmsc.gov.au.
| Bailey, Capt. Trevor Managing Risk Onboard Ship Austmarine ’98 Papers Baird Publications, Melbourne 1998 0-9587013-7-7 |
Risk Management, Risk Assesment, cargo operations, passage plan, bunkering, pollution, fatigue, collision, SOLAS, personal safety, near misses, ISM, STCW95 |
| Bundschuh, Werner High Speed Craft in Australia: Safety Reforms for 2000 and Beyond Austmarine ’98 Papers Baird Publications, Melbourne 1998 0-9587013-7-7 |
Uniform Shipping Laws Code (USL Code), performance criteria, risk management, ISM, formal safety assessment, HSC Code, high speed craft definition, domestic commercial craft |
| Timms, Roger Ship Safety – Influences, Industry and Regulatory Requirements Austmarine ’98 Papers Baird Publications, Melbourne 1998 0-9587013-7-7 |
AMSA, ships of shame, HSC Code, Carriage of Livestock, ISM Code, Marine Incident Investigation Unit, IMO, bulk carriers, port state control, Parker, survey of health, stress and fatigue of Australian Seafarers |
| Armstrong, Tony International Regulations from an Australian Perspective, and how they will affect our Livelihood Austmarine ’98 Papers Baird Publications, Melbourne 1998 0-9587013-7-7 |
Review of High Speed Craft Code (HSC Code), IMO, pollution, MARPOL, Maritime Safety Committee (MSC), SOLAS, flag state inconsistency in interpretation, stability, extent of damage, load line, fire safety, Stockholm agreement, ro-ro ferries, evacuation trials, room corner fire test, inclining test, oily-water separator, photos of ferry/barge collision |
| White, Dr Michael The IMO and You- Australian Shipping Austmarine ’98 Papers Baird Publications, Melbourne 1998 0-9587013-7-7 |
Maritime Safety Committee (MSC), Legal Committee, Marine Environment Protection Committee, Technical Co-operation Committee, ISM Code, MARPOL 73/78, HNS Convention (Hazardous and Noxious Substances), Piracy, Suggestions for Shipping Management, status of IMO Conventions |
| Williams, Ian The Latest International Rules on Passenger Catamarans Austmarine ’98 Papers Baird Publications, Melbourne 1998 0-9587013-7-7 |
Estonia, ro-ro passenger ferries, IMO, panel of experts, economic consequences, intact and damage stability, bow door locking arrangements, regional standards, Stockholm Agreement, one-compartment standard of subdivision, retrospective application to existing ships, dry shod evacuation, inflatable platform, lifejacket location, air pipes, ventilation trunks, watertight doors, monitoring of bow & stern doors, communications, search and rescue (SAR) plans, helicopter landing areas, STCW95, securing of cargo, |
| Hall, Tim; Voilette, Dr Franck; Chung, Henry Fatigue Design Assessment of Aluminium Fast Craft Austmarine ’98 Papers Baird Publications, Melbourne 1998 0-9587013-7-7 |
Lloyd’s Register, Guidance Notes on Detail Design, nominal stress level control by increasing scantlings, geometrical stress concentration control, fatigue strength capability (S-N curve), fatigue strength does not show correlation with yield strength, structural details, numerical prediction of fatigue, spectral fatigue analysis model, hot spot, finite element analysis, waves |
| Lequeu, Ph., Raynaud, G.M., Cottignies, R.Dif & Ehrstrom, J.C. Fatigue and Corrosion Resistance of High Strength 5383 Aluminium Alloys Austmarine ’98 Papers Baird Publications, Melbourne 1998 0-9587013-7-7 |
5083-H116 alloy, welding strength, S-N curve |
| MacGillivary, Paul Bringing about Change to the Maritime Safety Regime Seminar Proceedings-50 Years On & Gearing up for the 21st Century The Institution of Marine Engineers 1998 0 9596411 6 5 |
Inspection culture, Safety culture, safety audit, ISM Code & its limitations, human factors, auditor competence, rectify cause rather than symptom, responsible management, audit is random sampling process, drawbacks of ISM Code, focus on critical tasks, inadequate safety management training, no-blame culture, USCG Prevention through People |
| Johnson, Michael Regulatory and Classification Trends for the 21st Century Seminar Proceedings-50 Years On & Gearing up for the 21st Century The Institution of Marine Engineers 1998 0 9596411 6 5 |
Safety culture, formal safety assessment, human factors, ISM Code, ergonomics, safety case, risk assessment, risk evaluation, moratorium on regulation, IMO Circular on FSA, classification societies as independent credible third party |
| Williams, Ian Maritime Safety Legislation into the 21st Century Seminar Proceedings-50 Years On & Gearing up for the 21st Century The Institution of Marine Engineers 1998 0 9596411 6 5 |
Formal safety assessment, most IMO standards are prescriptive, amendments in response to experience and casualties, classification society rules, integrated ship design packages, cost benefit analysis, offshore industry, Piper Alpha, performance standards, ISM Code, identification of hazards, assessment of risk, managing risk, IMO Circular on FSA, high speed craft hazard analysis, helicopter landing, bulk carrier structure, solo watchkeeping, political implications of performance standards, statistical database of ship casualties needed, holistic view of maritime safety, need for specific measurable criteria |
| Gawan-Tayler, Peter The IMO HSC Code – A Shipyard’s View Workboat World magazine, Nov 1998 1998 |
Sprinkler systems in accommodation, drainage, formal safety assessment, fire risk, economic cost of compliance relatively greater on small vessels, collision acceleration, transverse extent of damage, current review of HSC Code, longitudinal extent of damage, Marintek study, operational errors, crew training, comparative good record for high speed craft |
| Hoverclub of America Safety and Competition Rules for Light Hovercraft Hoverclub of America 1998 |
Design/Fabrication, Hull, Propellers and Fans, Safety Equipment, Self-Check Schedule, Competition Rules, crashworthiness, strength, suvivability, view, floatation, tow points, handling points, plow-in, guarding, protection and guarding, engines, exhausts, fuel systems, noise, helmets |
| The Hovercraft Club of Great Britain Ltd Design & Operational Requirements for Category 2 Cruising Hovercraft 1998 0-906535-40-9 |
Craft structure, strength, crashworthiness, buoyancy, power trasmission, fans and propellers, overspeed, guarding, control surfaces, fuel system, electrical system, instrumentation, fire control, stability, cushion pressure design, materials, noise, characteristics, operational safety procedures, offshore operation, guidelines for safe operation |
| Taylor, Roger Sedgwick, Adam Rational Decision Making: What Value a Life? Safety’98 Conference Papers www.safety98.org 1998 |
Absolute safety versus cost issues, technical feasibility regardless of cost, various approaches to safety including technical limits, continuous improvement, safety budget, negotiation with workforce, safety authority, cost/benefit analysis, value of preventing fatality (VPF), size and control theories for determining VPF, very large risks, very small risks |
| Sanders, Roy Relative Risks to Society and the Chemical Industry Safety’98 Conference Papers www.safety98.org 1998 |
Perceived risk may differ from true risk, involuntary versus voluntary risk, moral versus immoral, detectable versus undetectable, natural versus man-made, potential risks of exposure to general hazards, risks of various occupations in US, highest in the US for fishermen, fatal accident rates for UK (FAR) |
| Clarke, David The Human Face of Risk Safety’98 Conference Papers www.safety98.org 1998 |
Definition of risk, risk perception, human performance, human error, error in design, failure analysis, error in operations and maintenance, error in management, safety culture, error management, error prevention, ethics of risk, decisions about risk, informed consent, risk communication |
| Fuller, Geoff Safety: The Critical Issue for a Maritime Transportation System of the 21st Century Safety’98 Conference Papers www.safety98.org 1998 |
Human perception of risk in travel, safety engineering and regulation, safe materials (corrosion & fire), design for safety, safety appraisal, safe operation, safe disposal |
| Fearnley, John Small Vessel Safety – Managing the Risks: The Safety Case Approach Safety’98 Conference Papers www.safety98.org 1998 |
Problems with prescriptive rules, safety case approach, identify hazards, prevention of hazards, mitigation of consequences, brainstorming approach, fire, flooding, injury, illness, man overboard, lists of safety critical elements for various hazards. |
| Maritime Safety Authority of New Zealand Mack Attack Martime Accidents (1996-1997) Maritime Safety Authority of NZ 1997 |
Collision with dinghy, 1 fatality, 11.4 metre catamaran carrying 30 passengers at over 40 knots, excessive trim, failure to comply with speed restriction, restricted visibility from wheelhouse, speed not specifically monitored |
| Williams, Ian M. The Development and Subsequent Review of the International High Speed Craft Code Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
HSC Code, acceptable risk, problems with DSC Code, hovercraft, hydrofoils, SOLAS, problems with ‘satisfaction of the administration’ clauses, collision, categories of HSC, permit to operate, review of HSC Code, ro-ro ferries, community concerns, issues for review, formal safety assessment |
| Fan, Michael; Pinchin, Miles Structural Design of High Speed Craft – A comparative study of classification requirements Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
HSC Code, Det Norske Veritas (DnV), Lloyds Register (LR), Germanischer Lloyd (GL), conceptual approach, vertical acceleration, design loads, global loads, slamming, hydrostatics, wave pressure, scantlings comparison, weight comparision, |
| Fyfe, A.; Hawkins, G.L.; Shenoi, R.A.; Price, W.G.; Temarel, P. Read, P.J.C.L.; Kcsmar, J. Fatigue Performance of Welded Aluminium Tee Connections Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Longitudinal and transverse web stiffeners intersection, aft end structure, high frequency high cycle loadings, 5083 alloy, 5356 welding wire, crack growth, correlation between finite element analysis and experimental testing, parametric variations, S-N curve, influence of production variability on fatigue life |
| Fredriksen, Albert Fatigue Aspects of High Speed Craft Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Det Norske Veritas (DnV), historical fatigue data, local cyclic loads and unfavourable design detail important, waterjet/transom connection, waterjet duct, engine foundation, hull details, stress range, workmanship, corrosion protection, S-N curve, DnV philosophy, operating time, sea conditions, Miner-Palmgren rule for accumulated damage, stress concentration factors, calculation procedure |
| Berstad, Are J. Larsen, Carl M. Fatigue Crack Growth in the Hull Structure of High Speed Vessels Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Fatigue response in hull structure, ship motions, sea loads, stress analysis, fatigue accumulation, local structural response model, finite element analysis, catamaran case study, effect of speed reduction |
| Clark, S.D.; Shenoi, R.A.; Allen, H.G.; Hicks, I.A.; Cripps, R.M. Fatigue Assessment of High Performance Small Craft Incorporating FRP Sandwich Materials Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Sandwich construction, glass/Kevlar-epoxy skins, RNLI lifeboat, properties, structural hull loadings, bottom slamming pressure determined from sea trials, hull pressure distribution, applied load spectrum, finite element modelling, experimental S-N data, cumulative fatigue damage, life prediction |
| Roberts, T.J. Watson, N.L. Davis, M.R. Evaluation of Sea Loads in High Speed Catamarans Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Global versus local fatigue, data from sea trials, finite element model, bow slamming, static loads, sagging, pitch connection moment, split load, vertical acceleration, rainflow analysis |
| Kyyro, K. Hakala, M.K. Helasharju, H. Rantanen, A. Holopainen, T. Determination of Structural Dimensioning Loads of a Fast Catamaran using Rigid-Backbone Segmented Model Testing Techniques Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
SWATH catamaran, catamaran loading characteristics, global loads, pitch connecting moment, instrumentation, data analysis, representative results |
| Cheng, Fai Some Results from LR’s Open Water Model Experiments for High Speed Craft Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Lloyd’s Register, Krylov studies, catamaran model, test parameters, monohull model, SWATH model, surface effect ship model, comparison with computed results, global loads, cross-deck impact pressures, accelerations |
| Kuo, C. Application of the Safety Case Concept to High Speed Craft Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Safety options, formal safety assessment, prescriptive requirements, definition of safety, systems engineering, hazard identification, risk assessment, risk reduction, emergency preparedness, safety management system, risk is function of consequence and probability of occurrence, qualitative estimate of risk, table of hazard descriptions and risk reduction methods |
| Bogdanov, A.I. Maskalik, A.I. To the Question on Safety Criteria for a New Fast Sea Transport Means—An Ekranoplan Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
WIG Craft, IMO correspondence group, high speed craft code, HSC Code, characteristics of ekranoplans, Type A, B and C defined, buoyancy, stability, subdivision, displacement mode, surface effect mode, fly-over mode, aircraft mode, amphibian mode, transitional mode |
| Oi-Hyun Kim Ick-Hung Choe Jae-Hyun Kim Joon-Mo Choung Bow Collision Analysis of High Speed Passenger Craft Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Numerical modelling, finite element analysis, crushing distance, deceleration, passenger safety, structural damage, analysis of catamaran at speed between 5 and 40 knots, effect of heading significant |
| Brumley, A.T. Koss, L.L. The Need for Statistics on the Human Behaviour of Passengers During the Evacuation of High Speed Craft Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Dangers of sea transportation, ro-ro ferries, interpretation stage, preparation stage, action stage, cue perceptions, factors which effect human behaviour, evacuation analysis, congestion, safety information, evacuation system, layout, quantitative assessment, passenger knowledge, listing scenario, evacuation times |
| Haugen, Elin Marita Faltinsen, Odd Aarsnes, Jan Vidar Application of Theoretical and Experimental Studies of Wave Impact to Wetdeck Slamming Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Theoretical method, drop testing of model to validate theory, comparisons, graph of maximum operational significant wave height versus speed as determined by wet-deck slamming |
| Kofoed-Hansen, H. Mikkelsen, A.C. Wake Wash from Fast Ferries in Denmark Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Complaints by public, characteristics of ship-generated waves in shallow water, supercritical speed range, long period waves usually cause wash problems, field measurements of wake wash, conventional versus high speed craft, HSC have smaller wave height but longer period, prediction, computational fluid dynamics (CFD), effect on beaches, criteria for acceptable wash, regulation in Denmark |
| Odegaard, John Nielsen, O.W. Gosling, A. External Noise from Fast Ferries Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.1 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 3 4 |
Noise limits in Denmark, complaints from persons close to ferry routes, regulations for maximum low-frequency noise, noise from fast ferries, air intakes for turbo-chargers, noise from fans, exhaust noise from engines, silencers, case study on Cat-Link ferries |
| Werenskiold, P. Evaluation and Quantification of HSC Safety for Approval and Operational Purposes Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.2 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 4 2 |
High speed craft, IMO, safety assessment model, company strategy, legislative requirements, technical requirements, operational performance and documentation, emergency systems and preparedness, crew standards and procedures, STWC95, safety management, ISM Code, monitoring performance, formal safety assessment, high risk of collision or grounding |
| Curry, Robert Grove, Todd W. Mak, Andrew Revised Classification Requirements fo rthe Design and Construction of the Latest Generation of High Speed Ferries Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.2 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 4 2 |
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS), application, classification notations, areas of operation, operational speeds and sea states, vertical accelerations, slamming pressures, hydrostatic wave pressure, minimum plate thickness, global strength, ro-ro ferries, materials, machinery, fire safety |
| Lokites, LCDR Ronald McKesson, Chris B. High Speed Vessels in the USA- an Introduction to the United States’ Regulatory Environment Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.2 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 4 2 |
United States Coast Guard (USCG), US regulations pertaining to shipping, Jones Act, industry standards, HSC Code equivalent to 46 CFR |
| Smith, Rohan C. Koss, Leonard L. Motion Sickness Study on Wavepiercing Catamarans Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.2 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 4 2 |
Survey of passenger response, susceptibility to motion sickness, correlation of motion sickness and vessel motion, effect of age & gender, predictive measure |
| Hoyning, Bjorn Taby, Jon Fire Protection of Composite Vessels: Fire Protection and Structural Integrity – an integrated approach Fast ’97 Conference Papers Vol.2 Baird Publications, Melbourne 1997 0 9587013 4 2 |
High speed craft code (HSC Code), fire restricting materials, fire resisting division, fire reaction, fire resistance, room-corner test of as-installed materials, toxicity limited by limits on heat release and smoke, deficiencies of small-scale testing, cone calorimeter, capability of certified products to meet SOLAS requirements, temperature limit for load-bearing divisions, IMO fire resistance test (Resolution A.754(18)), fire-retardant resins have tendency to have increased smoke and reduced structural properties, phenolic resins, problems with foam cores, use of SFP with composites, load-bearing issues, sandwich panels, insulation effects including linings on cold side |
| NSW Waterways Authority New South Wales Boating Incident Report 1 July 1996-30 June 1997 (Published annually) NSW Waterways Authority 1997 |
Obligation to report incidents, nature of incidents, recreational and commercial, fatalities and injuries, offshore v enclosed waters, damage, month and time of day, location, vessel type, causes, types of incidents, length, boating incident form |
| Darwin, R.L Leonard, J.T. Scheffey, J.L. Fire spread by heat transmission through steel bulkheads and decks Paper 6, IMAS 94 Fire Safety on Ships. Developments into the 21st Century 1994 |
Flashover fire, stoichiometric conditions, experimental results, overhead compartment, adjacent compartment, radiant heat flux, air temperature, deck temperature, bulkhead temperature, ignition thresholds, human tolerance, effects on electronic equipment, insulation, boundary cooling |
| Brumley, A.T. Koss, L.L. Evacuation Analysis of Ships Mitigation of Maritime Natural Hazards in the Indian Ocean 1996 |
Historical information, stages of evacuation, physical and psychological factors determining evacuation time, preparation, crisis discovery, crisis reporting, crisis assessment, muster warning signal, acceptance of crisis, reaction to acceptance, muster, instruction, abandonment assessment, embarkation warning, evacuation from muster point to embarkation point, embarkation into survival craft, clear vessel, search and rescue, time to don jackets, evacuation software |
| Brumley, A.T Koss, L.L. The Implications of Human Factors on the Evacuation of Ferries and Cruise Ships AME 98 1998 |
Route choice models, passenger knowledge of safety requirements, safety rating of safety media information systems, demonstration, notices, audio announcement, pamphlets, passenger experience, influence of ship motions on evacuees, effect of list, dynamic effect significant, sliding, overturning, counter/contra flows |
| Marine Safety Agency (UK) Report on "Exercise Invicta" Held in Dover Harbour Saturday 13 January 1996 Marine Safety Agency 1996 |
Muster and evacuation exercise on ro-ro passenger ship STENA INVICTA, 11 to 20 minutes to muster with lifejackets donned + 57 to 68 minutes evacuation time through MES (average 14.2 secs per person), 723 pax (of 1721 max) + 119 crew, vessel fitted with MES, rafts and boats, no passenger cabins on vessel, lifeboat prepared and cleared for boarding in 10 minutes, passenger observations regarding assembly inside vessel and on staircases, sufficient crew for each survival craft, key parameters were availability of liferafts for boarding and time to evacuate down MES, failure of or problems with rafts & MES inflating extended times, limitations of trials: risk of injury due to exercise, no motions, listing and not at night with emergency lighting, no sense of urgency or panic, mustering and evacuation of passengers should be simultaneous to avoid delay, inflatable wear and tear by repeated trials, unable to meet 30 mins evacuation time of IMO, proposed extention to 60 mins for assembly and evacuation, crew idenfication, megaphones. |
| Hurlstone, John Opening Address Shipsafe Seminar 1997 Institute of Marine Engineers (Sydney Branch) 1997 0 9596411 30 |
Alarming number of ship losses, underlying economic forces, IMO: bulk cargoes, ISM Code, Class survey reports, STCW Convention, Classification Societies, IACS, Insurance: hull and machinery, protection and indemnity, rising premiums, Port State control, human factors, vetting by charterers. |
| Taylor, Graham Fast Ferry Safety Shipsafe Seminar 1997 Institute of Marine Engineers (Sydney Branch) 1997 0 9596411 30 |
DSC Code, HSC Code, problems with uniform interpretation of HSC Code, certification of high speed craft, formal safety assessment, fire detection and protection, evacuation time, loss of structural strength of aluminium versus steel, emphasis on low weight, voluntary increase of standards for engine room extinguishing, materials in passengers spaces, redundancy and reliability, FMEA, new IMO performance standards for radars, gyros and autopilots, wheelhouse design, visibility, safety management, typical listing of manuals, training, annual refresher courses and MES demonstration, safety drills, type rating certificate, safety announcements and instructions, a safe operation, inspection, maintenance & repair done "at night", crisis management, reporting of near misses, duty of care |
| Marine Safety Agency UK Formal Safety Assessment. Trial application to high speed passenger catamaran vessels. Final report DE41/INF.7 IMO Sub-Committee on Ship Design and Equipment. 41st session. Agenda item 5 1997 |
Quantified risk levels for HSC, Formal Safety Assessment (FSA), 100 minor injuries or 10 major injuries equivalent to one fatality, hazard identification, risk assessment, risk control options, cost benefit assessment, risk of potential loss of life (PLL) through collision 11 times that for loss of hull integrity, 16 times that for fire and 26 times that for contact, highest collision risk operating at high speed in coastal or harbour waters, highest loss of hull integrity risk at forward end of hulls, highest fire risk in engine rooms, highest contact risk whilst berthing/unberthing, adherence to procedures, review of collision regs, external vessel management |
| Smith, J.R.G. Ship Safety and Pollution Prevention: The Regulatory Regime International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) 1999 |
Benefits of prescription. Externally imposed hazards- sea, other vessels, navigational hazards. Internally imposed hazards- fire, explosion, human error, shifting of cargo, toxicity of cargo, essential system failure or breakdown. Ship itself as a hazard- collision threat, pollution. List of perceived hazards. Neither safety or pollution prevention is absolute. Safety defined as level of safety deemed by the community at any given time to be both necessary and affordable. Classification society rules: materials, ship structures, main & auxiliary machinery, control systems, electrical installations. Theoretical investigations must be calibrated against in-service data. Incident reporting. Equivalence of solutions measured against prescriptive requirements. IMO Conventions, Codes & Resolutions: application, role of Classification rules, prescription in Load Lines, Damaged stability: deterministic versus probabilistic method. Dangerous goods. Fire safety. Radio. Lifesaving appliances. Pollution prevention. STWC. ISM. Diversity of shipping makes it unique among modes of transport. Practical difficulties of safety assessment taking into account human element while maintaining consistent and uniform safety. Initially applied by IMO to regulatory process itself. |
| Epidemiology Unit Work-related fatal injuries as a result of fishing and maritime activities in Australia, 1989 to 1992 Information from the second work-related fatalities study 1989 to 1992 National Occupational Health & Safety Commission 1999 0 642 39967 0 |
93 deaths of which 55 in fishing industry. Fishing industry has one of highest fatal injury rates in Australia 89.2 deaths per 100,000, 16 times average for all industries. Key incidents: vessels capsizing in rough weather and heavy sea, persons not wearing a PFD falling overboard and drowning, swimming during work break, entanglement in nets and ropes and being dragged overboard, carbon monoxide poisoning of divers due to proximity of compressor intake to engine exhaust. 82% of fatalities in fishing industry were caused by drowning. 47% occurred while fishing or collecting catch. Non-fatal injuries: body stressing from lifting etc, 31%; moving objects 28%, falls 16%, impact with stationary objects 16%. Recommendations of coroners, OH&S bodies, marine authorities regarding safety devices & equipment, work practices, procedures & organization, design & use of vessels, machinery & equipment, information & awareness, training & qualifications, risk assessment. |
| Caridis, P.A. and Tsitsonis, A.A. An Investigation into the loss of RMS Titanic considering the role of the human factor Paper No.230. Royal Institution of Naval Architects Spring Meetings 1999 Royal Institution of Naval Architects 1999 |
Investigation of human & organizational error; Event Tree Network method; perceptual, physical and mental capabilities, interaction of individuals, equipment and system design, organizational characteristics; safety culture; accident investigation; Modules: fact sheet, event network, causal factors, accident summary; Phases: latent, initiation, escalation, critical; Errors: functional, internal malfunction, basic causes; preventative measures: technical, operational, personnel, safety management, top level management, infrastructure; application of method to loss of Titanic; survival culture; crisis management; abnormal conditions. |
| Sullivan, Patrick Can We Predict the Weather? Proceedings on the Workshop on Safety of Ocean Racing Yachts University of NSW 1999 0 7334 0582 7 |
Computer analysis, manual analysis; use of Mean Sea Level synoptic chart has limitations because not 3-dimensional; qualitative approach to weather prediction being replaced by quantitative approach using super computers & amassed data; global prediction twice daily; regional prediction with 25km resolution; wind speeds refer to mean wind 10m above the surface, gusts increase wind speed 40% above mean; significant wave height is average height of highest one-third of waves, equates to estimated wave height by experienced observer; maximum wave may be twice significant wave; deep water waves function of wind speed, wind duration, wind fetch. |
| Hood, Warwick What is Wrong with Modern Ocean-Racing Yachts? Proceedings on the Workshop on Safety of Ocean Racing Yachts University of NSW 1999 0 7334 0582 7 |
Problems: a lack of design standards, quest for speed above all, low displacement, lack of periodic survey; design compromises suitable for short distance racing not appropriate for ocean racing; high freeboard & low displacement result in high impact loads, sandwich composites more prone to failure in heavy seas, rudder failures, seaworthiness, RORC Rule, CCA Rule, IOR Rule (marks I-III), IMS; light-craft rules of classification societies. |
| Dovell, Andrew Yacht Design Related Safety Issues and the 1998 Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race Proceedings on the Workshop on Safety of Ocean Racing Yachts University of NSW 1999 0 7334 0582 7 |
Lessons concerning: deck structural scantlings to be increased, design & use of personal harnesses, design & use of liferafts, race categories, general safety standards; IMS Rule incorporates: displacement, righting moment & range of stability; AYF Special Regulations for Category 1: Stability-range >115 deg, Structural standards, ABS Guide to Building & Classing Offshore Yachts withdrawn, ISO standards; yachts rolled-over or knocked down; analysis of 1998 Sydney-Hobart yachts; displacement/length ratio showed no trend regarding knockdowns; range of stability showed no trend regarding knockdowns; righting within 4 minutes; yachts 11-13m in length seemed more susceptible-possibly function of weather conditions; deck damage associated with knockdown in breaking waves. |
| Murman, Christopher Yacht Stability and Seaworthiness Proceedings on the Workshop on Safety of Ocean Racing Yachts University of NSW 1999 0 7334 0582 7 |
Hull form stability, stability due to crew mass diminishes with vessel size, range of stability, ultra-light displacement maxi-yachts compared with traditional yachts, 1979 Fastnet conclusions: risks increased by large beam, shallow canoe body, high aspect ratio keels, light displacement, low coach roof volume. |
| Mitchell, Alastair Value and Quality of Experience in the Skipper and Crew Proceedings on the Workshop on Safety of Ocean Racing Yachts University of NSW 1999 0 7334 0582 7 |
Technical and equipment improvements still limited by “people failures”; AYF Special Regulation, Categories “0” & “1”; inshore sailing practice unsuitable offshore; contingency planning; capability of heaving to and slowing down; suitability of vessel for offshore racing; window pane sizes & storm covers; Beaufort Scale, Force 5 considered beginning of rough weather; inadequate range of stability on wide beam boats; escape hatch in transom; capsize of ocean racing yachts more likely due to waves than wind; self-righting characteristics; radio aerial performance; knowledge in use of safety equipment; training and rehearsing of procedures; people often the weak link in the safety system. |
| De Kat, Jan Dynamics of Vessel Capsizing in Critical Wave Conditions Proceedings on the Workshop on Safety of Ocean Racing Yachts University of NSW 1999 0 7334 0582 7 |
Dynamic stability characteristics of large ships compared to sailing yachts; YACHTS: breaking wave impact in steep seas, knockdown under sail in heavy wind and waves; broaching associated with surf-riding and bow submergence, combinations of these. SHIPS: vulnerable to static loss of stability due to wave crest passing in following to stern quartering waves of low frequencies, dynamic rolling in stern quartering seas exacerbated by resonance with natural roll period, breaking waves in steep seas, broaching in waves, water on deck, wind in beam waves, cargo shifting. Factors influencing resistance against capsize for yachts: displacement, range of positive stability, radius of gyration for roll (more vulnerable when dismasted), area beneath righting curve to vanishing stability. Environmental factors: Wave steepness, effect of opposing current significant. Factors influencing yacht survival after capsize: watertight integrity, structural integrity, reserve buoyancy. |
| Renilson, Martin Safety of Offshore Racing—The Critical Factors Proceedings on the Workshop on Safety of Ocean Racing Yachts University of NSW 1999 0 7334 0582 7 |
Factors effecting safety: yacht design, safety equipment on board and worn, rescuer capabilities, location, competence. Statical stability limitations, capsize event usually dynamic for small vessels, roll moment of inertia significant to resistance to breaking waves, mast increases roll moment, factors determining self-righting capability: magnitude of inverted GM and inverted range of stability, size of coachroof, stability ratio. Critical components vulnerable to damage: mast, rudder, steering gear, keel, watertight integrity of hull & deck; uncertainty determining design loads, need to collect data from failures. Escape hatches for capsize, bulkhead integrity, disadvantages of wing masts, suitable hull colours for rescue, inflatable life jackets, safety harnesses, immersion suits, personal EPIRB, personal pyrotechnics. Radio communications, DSC system, aerials vulnerable to damage, VHF hand held radio, satellite phones, SART transponder, air rescue techniques, operating radius of helicopter limited to 150Nm. Training: preventative, survival, call for compulsory short courses. |
| Joubert, Peter Discussion paper Proceedings on the Workshop on Safety of Ocean Racing Yachts University of NSW 1999 0 7334 0582 7 |
First hand experiences on board Kingurra during 1998 Sydney-Hobart race, failure of safety harness, safety responsibilities, race committees, rules on reporting weather observations, wind strength and errors in measuring on yachts, datum 10m above sea surface, effect of waves on wind speed, reported wave sizes, many waves breaking, displacement not significant factor in surviving breaking wave, vulnerability of deck structure &deck fittings to breaking waves, strength should be as per hull. |
| Lucas, Andrew Discussion paper Proceedings on the Workshop on Safety of Ocean Racing Yachts University of NSW 1999 0 7334 0582 7 |
Application of satellite-based positioning and communications systems to yacht racing, current reliance on voice communication, GMDSS, EPIRB. C3: command, control and communications. Situation awareness, satellite-based positioning, GPS, satellite-based communications, satellite weather forecasting, Iridium-style global phones, Teledesic (2003). C3 system for situation awareness: competitors, bureau of meteorology, race centre, AMSA |
| Kuo, Chengi The Impact of Human Factors on Ship Stability Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on the Stability of Ships Australian Maritime College 2000 0 9585990 4 1 |
Meaning of safety. Key factors of safety: Engineering, Operation, Management, Human Factors. Definition of Human Factors: Interfacing of personal capabilities and characteristics with combination of hardware, software, working environment & organizational culture in effective performance of a task. Balancing client needs with acceptable levels of safety, incorporating an operator’s perspective in the design process, management generates a safety culture with clearly defined safety goals, assigning responsibilities and training. 90% of accident claims due to human error: 60% directly, 30% indirectly. Theory of human error. Factors: attitude, communications, concentration, confidence, experience, human limitations, information, management, procedure, time constraints, tiredness, training. Use of safety case concept. Safety management system, analytic hierarchy process. Tension between engineering solutions and human factor solutions. |
| Boccadamo, G. Cassella, P. Scamardella, A. Stability, Operabilityand Working Conditions Onboard Fishing Vessels Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on the Stability of Ships Australian Maritime College 2000 0 9585990 4 1 |
Operability of fishing vessels seriously effected by sea state. IMO casualty statistics, 25% of lives lost due to falls on board or overboard. Direct and indirect effects of excessive motions. Motion Induced Interruptions (MII), motions which cause persons to slip or overbalance, associated risk levels. Seakeeping criteria: vertical acceleration, slamming, deck wetness, roll, lateral acceleration. Bilge keels beneficial. Seakeeping performance index (SPI). |
| Deakin, Barry Model Tests to Study Capsize and Stability of Sailing Multihulls. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on the Stability of Ships Australian Maritime College 2000 0 9585990 4 1 |
Research project for MCA. Casualty information, 84% of sailing catamaran casualties due to wind induced capsize, trimarans have higher number of casualties and are also vulnerable to breaking wave capsize in severe conditions. Wind tunnel tests: effect of deck area, coachroof, bare poles, full rig, full rig eased, reefed rig. Formula to estimate heeling moments. Significant wind moment at 90degrees heel. Roll and capsizing tests. High VCG or narrow beam increases risk of capsize of multihulls |
| Foster,Rick Fire Suppression Options for Machinery Spaces under the New National Standard for Commercial Vessels Asia-Pacific Fishing / Ausmarine East 2001 Baird Publications 2001 0 9577279 3 3 |
Fire safety, Uniform Shipping Laws Code, USL Code, fixed fire extinguishing systems, IMO Resolution A.719 (17) prohibits halons, fire test regimes published in MSC Circulars 848 and 914 , water mist systems limited to volume tested, extinguishing methodologies-cooling, reduction in oxygen, breaking chain reaction, eliminating fuel, activation scenarios: 1. no fire + cold 2. no fire + hot 3. fire + hot 4. post fire. Carbon dioxide, hydrocarbon agents, aerosol particulates, low expansion foam, high expansion foam, dry powder, water spray, inert gas, steam. LOAEL, NOAEL, NAF S-III, FM200, Inergen, inert waste gas, Micro-K, Pyrogen, questions regarding performance of untested prescribed systems, water mist systems, low pressure, high pressure, atomizing, automatic local water mist systems, cost, availability. |
| Vivalda, C. & Giribone, R. Experience Gained by the Application of the Formal Safety Assessment Approach to High Speed Craft Fast ’99 Conference Papers Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers 1999 |
Formal Safety Assessment, bottom-up approach based on single monohull. Hazard identification: accidentology, Failure Mode, Effect and Criticality Analysis (FMECA), Zonal Analysis, Human Reliability Analysis, expert elicitation. Accident scenarios, categories of accidents: eg. collision, grounding, contact, flooding, fire, explosion, etc. Hazard identification (HAZID) stage. Cause analysis, frequencies, consequences, individual risks, societal risks, acceptable, not acceptable, acceptable if As Low as Reasonably Practicable (ALARP) applies. Results of safety analysis: demonstrating compliance with stated safety outcomes, identifying critical functions or outcomes, identifying risk control options, comparing RCOs for technical performance & cost effectiveness, assessing efficiency of safety standards. Human factors, Delphy method, Technique for Human Error Rate Prediction (THERP). Availability analysis; i.e., ship performance analysis, factors: intrinsic reliability, maintenance, organization, training, exterior factors such as weather &sea conditions. Reliability Block Diagram (RBD), System RBD, Subsystem RBD, fault trees, results: assessment of actual availability of vessel, identification of key systems/subsystems, Availability Improvement Options (AIO), cost-effectiveness of AIOs. Cost-benefit analysis, decision making, stakeholder input. Comparison with IMO FSA approach. |
| Urban, Jesper Pedersen, Preben Simonsen, Bo Collision Risk Analysis for HSC Fast ’99 Conference Papers Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers 1999 |
High Speed Craft, collision scenario compared to conventional craft, risks due to speed & light weight structure. Investigation of collision frequencies and collision consequences. Collision probability analysis: accident frequency N(ship-ship)=possible ship accident frequency Na x causation probability Pc. Possible accident factors, angle between routes, traffic flow, speed, geometrical collision diameter for each vessel. Causation probability: accident data, fault tree analysis. Collision probability higher for catamaran, higher probability (70%) that HSC will be striking vessel. Consequences, energy released for crushing, mass of conventional vessel very large compared, highly dependent on angle, not greatly dependent on location along length, less for catamarans compared to monohulls due to yawing, crushing models: analytical analysis compared to experimental results, latter lower due to fracture, cracking at welds, aluminium tends to have more brittle crushing behavior than steel, finite element analysis gave better correlation, effect of bridging deck. HSC Code predictions of acceleration & collision zone compared, both good for monohull, acceleration underestimated, indentation OK for catamaran due to infinite height of obstruction. |
| Ploss, Richard S. A Possible Application of Reliability Centered Maintenance Principles in the Design, Construction and Operation of High Speed Vessels Fast ’99 Conference Papers Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers 1999 |
RCM, maintains environmental, operational and safety performance levels to accomplish vessel’s purpose. Identifies failure modes, their consequences & identifies preventative actions through maintenance. Used in airline industry. ABS Guide to Survey based on Preventative Maintenance Techniques. Definitions, High Speed Craft Code (HSC Code). RCM principles: identification of item’s functions, failure (inability to meet desired standard of performance), criteria for failure differs between stakeholders &needs to be agreed, categories of failure: hidden, safety, environmental, operational, non-operational (economic). Functions: primary, secondary, examples. Performance: system initial, system mission-limiting, system reliability-minimum, system safety-minimum, reliability requires capability>desired performance, performance levels, potential failure (P-F) interval, condition monitoring. RCM plan objectives, RCM review group, 2 to 7 persons. RCM approaches: short-term, long-term, comparison. Steps to develop RCM: Design for maintainability, functional failure analysis, categorise failure distributions, determine maintenance task intervals, implementation plan, data collection &optimization, analysis and corrective action. |
| Kuo, Chengi Smith, Alison Crauford, Simon Cain, Chris Interactive Multimedia Technology for Safety Training on Stena Lin’s HSS1500 Fast 2001 Conference Papers Royal Institution of Naval Architects 2001 |
Interactive media technology(IMT) for type rating on high speed craft. definition of safety, human factors, training system criteria: suitable for all recruits, short duration, effective. Options: Class room, hands on, computer based training. Merits of IMT: learning rate, consistency, readily updated. Drawbacks of IMT: high initial cost. Training software for HSS1500, Marine Evacuation System (MES) module, General Safety Information Self-Test module. Experience gained in using IMT, effectiveness in meeting training goal, ease of application, cost-effectiveness, user responses, effectiveness for revalidation. Conclusions: statutory training requirements effectively met by IMT, initial development of modules high but should reduce in future, to be available for both on board ship and on shore use. |
| Blyth, Andrew G. Revised IMO Stability and Buoyancy requirements for High Speed Craft Fast 2001 Conference Papers Royal Institution of Naval Architects 2001 |
2000 HSC Code. Revisions to 1994 HSC Code regarding stability & buoyancy: bottom raking damage, inner bow door on ro-ro craft, Load Line provisions, other matters. Extent of damage: Condor 11, St Malo. High speed craft suffer 2 to 4 times damage length of conventional vessels. Relative risks associated with grounding damage found to be very high. Sleipner incident. Derivation of 2000 HSC Code extent of damage criteria. Vertical location of damage, areas considered vulnerable. Category A craft, Category B craft, weathertight superstructures included in damaged calculations, definition of weathertight, vital to many vessels for compliance. Trial application to actual designs. Modifications to accommodate vessels less than 50m in length. Probability of full length raking damage reduces with size. Inner bow door, not needed where large freeboard relative to wave height, model testing alternative & guidelines. Load line conditions of assignment, location, bow height, doors, hatches &scuttles, freeing ports, ventilators, windows, closure indicators, bulwark heights. Alternative assessment methods, full scale trials, mathematical simulation, scale models. Stability at speed, descriptions of behaviour. Intact stability criteria revision, monohull & multihull criteria, weather & wind heeling criteria. Extent of damage criteria based on displacement^0.333 rather than length. Interpretations required for shape of indent damage. Minimum freeboard to downflooding when damaged increased, equilibrium heel angles rationalized, void bottom compartments. |
| Vivalda, Claudia Lassagne, Marc A Formal Method to Balance Safety Requirements and Regularity of Fast Ships Fast 2001 Conference Papers Royal Institution of Naval Architects 2001 |
Goals for the operator of HSC. 1. Safety (passengers, personnel, vessel itself). 2. Vessel availability (Downtime due to accident, maintenance or operational factors). Risk control options (RCOs), Availability Improvement options (AIOs). Cost benefit analysis compared to Cost effectiveness analysis, latter preferred because does not explicitly put value on human life. Cost of one Unit of Risk Reduction analysis (CURR)=(?Costs-?Benefits)/?Risk. Calculated to Net Present Value (NPV). Costs & benefits are actual economic figures. ?Risk may be calculated in terms of Number of Equivalent Deaths per Year (NED) which takes into account injuries. Cost of one Unit of Unavailability Reduction (CUUR), analysis used in parallel with CURR. Simplified procedure to balance safety and regularity considerations. Case study for high speed craft. |
| Jullumstro, Egil Werenskiold, Per Berge, Svein P. Safe Handling and Operational Limits of HSC Fast 2001 Conference Papers Royal Institution of Naval Architects 2001 |
High speed craft safety. Most incidents due to human failures, weak links in man-machine interaction. Sleipner incident, 16 deaths, improper navigation was direct cause of grounding, course wrong for some time prior to incident, attention of master &navigator diverted at moment of impact, vessel was operating in waves that were beyond allowed limit, master had inadequate training in HSC. Similarities with Asta train accident (17 killed), Gulf Air accident (143 killed), Ferry Express Samina accident (80 killed). Persons in charge inadequately trained, information systems too complex, key parameters for safety not focused on, management of emergency situations failed, information to avoid incident available but not used, man-machine interaction failed in critical situations. Cannot entirely prevent human errors however, man/machine interface can be designed to reduce human errors. Suggests adoption of aircraft safety systems for HSC. 2000 HSC Code. Manoeuvring & performance data inadequate, means for assessing wave heights inadequate. Recommendations of commission: limits must be realistic for intended operations, operators’ knowledge of operational characteristics and limits to be verified, wave measuring devices to be provided in critical locations. Early implementation of Chapters 17 & 18. Standards for performance measuring instrumentation. Craft and passenger acceleration criteria. Operator training for normal & extreme conditions a high priority. Recommended actual vessel driving tests. Simulators, NAUTSIM developed by Marintek, applications: training, FMEA, onboard guidance system, design and tuning of control systems. Integrated guidance systems, information on wind, currents, waves, craft responses (motions, accelerations), comparison to limits & captain’s judgment, passenger comfort & safety, craft position &distances, heading, topography, depth under keel. window breakage incident, |
| Waugh, Gavin The Effect of Legislative Enforcement on Safety in the Western Australian Marine Industry Australian National Safety Journal Safety Institute of Australia—Western Australian Divisional Journal Vol 7 No.1 Spring 1999 |
Uniform Shipping Laws Code (USL Code), applicable to Australian domestic vessels for the purposes of legislation. Only selectively adopted by States. Trend in WA is general lack of awareness of OH&S risk principles in marine industry. Wallwork Royal Commission (1964), 5% accidents due to fire or explosion with the majority being for craft fueled by petrol, called for adequate ventilation of all engine compartments, incident in 1998 revealed lessons not learnt. Calls for pleasure vessel standards. Limitations of prescribing minimum safety standards. Loss of FV Saint Maddalena, issues of industry economics, calls to review regulations to ensure not inconsistent with OH&S. Reliance by industry on statutory initial & periodic survey to fulfill broader safety obligations, misconception perpetuated by Authority. Benefits of stakeholder participation in development of standards. Conflict of interest, separation of regulatory & commercial functions. Fatality incidence, fishing industry fatalities 18 times higher than industry average 1982-84, statistics available but detailed analysis poor, lack of research & analysis of safety management improvements. Comparison of compliance safety with system safety. Need for management commitment. |
| Johnson, Peter Performance Based Fire Safety Regulation &Building Design—The Challenges in the 21st Century Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Global trend towards performance-based building regulations & standards. Strategies for success, wide industry consultation, holistic approach to barriers to change, experts from outside, education and training, adoption of best international technology. Improved numerical modeling & design guides. Challenges in policy, regulatory, approval & accreditation. More study req’d in safety factors & uncertainty. Issue of property protection, conflict between BCA and Fire Acts. Lack of acknowledgement of non-zero risk, need to apply Risk-Cost models. Private certification issues, conflict of interest, audits. Inconsistency of outcomes, legislative causes, process issues, insufficient training, transparent documentation, peer review. Through life performance, legislative requirements, change of use. Input data limitations, design fires & human behaviour. Accreditation of professionals. |
| Williamson, B.J. Catchpole, M. A Simple Assessment Model to Determine Suitability of Performance-Based Approach at Concept Design Stage of a Project. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Reluctance to adopt performance based solutions because of the cost of development. Need method to assess at concept design stage. Current usage piecemeal to justify omission of equipment, overcome construction errors, combined prescriptive &performance approaches. Benefits of prescription, familiarity, simple to understand, facilitates quick approval. Concept design stage: difficult to justify development cost of full performance proposal but at the same time cost of conceptual change small. Reverse-engineering from prescriptive codes, may be hindered by coarseness of classification or grouping. Two step process for assessment, scale of project, special characteristics (fire load, building hazards, building occupants) |
| Beller, Douglas Foliente, Greg Meacham, Brian Qualitative Versus Quantitative Aspects of Performance-based Regulations Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Hierarchy of performance-based codes, goals, functional statement, operative requirement, performance or risk group, performance or risk level, performance or risk criteria, deemed to satisfy solutions, performance-based solutions, verification methods. Qualitative provisions express public policy, do not change markedly over time. Quantified provisions in legislation may be hard to change. Quantitative criteria required to develop design, otherwise designer and approver must try to interpret values of society, may get it wrong. Quantitative provisions: difficult to cover all situations, may be based on worst case, or average case. Review of 8 countries legislation to see relative use of qualitative versus quantitative criteria, 2 incorporate quantitative provisions, 3 have some quantitative, 2 reference standards, 1 does not quantify. |
| Nystedt, Fredrik Fire Safety Design when Normal Limits Don’t Apply Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Absolute fire risk criteria applicable when prescriptive solution not appropriate; i.e., when comparative fire risk criteria inapplicable. Principles of risk: reasonableness, proportionality, distribution, avoiding catastrophes. People to take risk should be exposed to risk. Evaluation criteria for fire: persons not to be exposed to untenable conditions, robustness of system provided by multiple safety barriers, risk to be commensurate with fire statistics, maximal consequence related to avoiding catastrophes. Assumed 95% confidence level. Potential loss of life (PLL). Average rate of death (ROD). Quantitative risk analysis (QRA) & extended QRA that incorporates probability distributions. Event tree analysis. Case study application to university building, 3 proposals, reliability of sprinkler systems &fire alarm 90% each, escape alarm 85% reliability, reliability of exits 95%. Critical time for escape calcs. Acceptance criteria. Poor performance of prescriptive solution. |
| Gemeny, Daniel F. Regulatory Review Practices and Standards for Performance-Based Design Submittals: An Engineer’s Perspective Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Plan review definition: A review of the construction documents by the Code Official to verify conformance with applicable performance and prescriptive code requirements. Peer review definition: An independent and objective technical review of the design to examine the proposed conceptual and analytical concepts, objectives and criteria of the design and/or construction. Qualifications for peer review. Peer review is an option to assist plan review. Overall design is the responsibility of the engineer. Conflicts can arise due to lack of co-ordination between responsible bodies. Individual bias. Regulatory bodies require staff to be appropriately trained to co-ordinate if not review performance based approaches, provides positive environment for performance design. Issues: lack of technical understanding & experience in individual assigned for review, conflicting opinions between departments of single organization, organizational bias toward specific solutions, lack of standard review process. Solutions: appropriately trained persons on staff of review authority, defined roles of different stakeholders, defined review process, lead point of contact. Peer review observations: specify scope of review, identify specific documents to be provided by designer, conduct before construction documents have been submitted or approved. US Coast Guard guidelines for performance-based design options for small passenger vessels, questions to be answered: Have all performance criteria been demonstrated? Has an industry-accepted engineering approach been used to quantify analysis? Have safety factors that are appropriate to the method of analysis been applied? NFPA Life Safety Code standard documentation: Technical references & resources, building design specifications, performance criteria, occupant characteristics, design fire scenarios, input data, output data, safety factors, prescriptive requirements. Sensitivity analysis of numerical models. |
| Meacham, Brian Tubbs, Beth Bergeron, Denis Performance System Model—A Framework for Describing the Totality of Building Performance. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Disconnect between standards, performance criteria and verification methods. Reliance on comparison with prescriptive solutions. Performance System Model-Qualitative elements: Goal/Objectives, Functional Statement, Operative Requirements/Performance Requirements, Performance/Risk Levels. Quantitative elements: Criteria, Verification. Quantitative methods and solutions must be linked to qualitative aspects to complete system. Qualitative elements critical as provides mechanism for policy makers and stakeholders to communicate expectations in everyday language. Criteria levels often have been developed by technical community with little interaction with policy makers or understanding of consumer’s needs. Benefits of wide involvement of stakeholders. Verification methods are generally design tools and measurement techniques. Standards provide consistent approach. Kinds of standards: test standards, procedural standards and standards for specifications. Note that performance criteria may vary to suit cultural or climatic differences in different jurisdictions. Regulatory application of PSM: aligning performance criteria to community expectations, verification methods inappropriate for achieving objectives, relative performance rather than pass/test result.. Non-regulatory use of the performance concept. |
| US Coast Guard Navigation and Inspection Circular No.3.01 Guide to Establish Equivalency to Fire Safety Regulations for Small Passenger Vessels (46CFR Subchapter K) US Dept of Transportation 24 April 2001 http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-m/nvic/3_01/n3-01.pdf |
Intended for the application of fire safety engineering design as an alternative to prescriptive requirements. Provides formal method for designers and regulators. Applicable to small passenger vessels that carry more than 150 passengers. Proposals to follow established engineering framework for fire safety design. Determination of whether System analysis and Basic Element Analysis. Steps for system analysis: Preliminary analysis-define project scope, determine level of analysis, establish design team, establish goals and objectives, develop performance criteria, develop fire scenarios, develop proposed designs, preliminary analysis report. Quantitative Analysis: quantification of design, analysis of design. Documentation required. Application of a Fire Safety Concepts Tree to Subchapter K, fire safety goals and objectives. Fire design scenarios. Technical references and resources. Basic Element Equivalency Process |
| Loveridge, Ray Lundqvist, Micael Documentation of Performance Based Fire Safety Designs Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Need for Building Fire Safety System Design Document. Alternative solutions under the Building Code of Australia. Role of designer, approver, peer reviewer, fire brigades. Avoidance of conflicts of interest. Certification of installations Documentation for maintenance of the alternative fire system. Fire Safety Strategy Documentation: 1. Summary of external and internal prerequisites for design (design assumptions). 2. Description of fire safety strategy and specific design solutions. 3. List of verifications & checking during construction. 4. Maintenance schedule & potential operational strategies. 5. Fire safety drawings. |
| Bukowski, Richard W. The Role of Standards in a Performance-based Building Regulatory System Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Regulations embody public expectations. Regulators empowered to act in the public interest and are ultimately responsible to the public. Standards provide details of methods and evaluation criteria, more technical in nature, developed by technical experts. Guards to ensure standards do not restrain trade. Harmonized standards facilitate international trade. Types of standards: test or measurement, procedural, interoperability, professional practice (analysis, design, documentation, etc). Regulations often cite standards. US requires citation of specific edition to avoid illegal delegation of legislative power. Application to performance-based standards. Structure of performance-based standards: Objectives, functional statements, performance requirements, acceptable methods. Performance standards provide link between qualitative statements and quantitative criteria, deemed to comply solutions. Evaluation: testing, expert judgement, experience & prediction. Prediction requires performance metrics for materials, products and systems for use in predictive models or calculations. Deemed to comply solutions must follow ‘due diligence’ criteria applicable to regulatory development. Issues pertaining to referenced software. Performance statement standards (relates performance to that required in regulations) & performance specification standards (acceptable solutions & performance metrics). National and cultural norms must be factored in. Performance System Model. Modifications for performance/risk level. Need for communication between regulators and standards developers. Need for regulators to provide clear direction and linkages to the goals and intents of the regulations. Test method standards: Currently mostly ad hoc. Ideal approach to establish property data suitable for direct application in end use models. Suggested goals for test methods. Regulatory standards development process- EU document, open and transparent, unrestricted means for public proposals, documented reasons for acceptance or rejection. USA: Voluntary Consensus Standards encouraged over government specific standards. Criteria: openness, balance of interest, due process, appeals process, consensus. Public access to standards. Public hearings, debate, notification and education. Standardization is one method where a method previously considered experimental or not fully developed moves into general accepted practice. Standards and international trade. Harmonized standards. |
| Nystedt, Fredrik Rantatalo, Tomas Micheelsen, Charlotte Quantifying the Safety Level in the Danish Building Fire Regulations. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Danish performance-based building regulations, safety level should be same whether prescriptive solution or analytical methods are used. Risk analysis required: 1. Is there enough knowledge and experience with risk analysis in field of building fire safety engineering? 2. Are the suggested methods transparent enough to be used by different engineers and give satisfactory comparable results? 3. Which is an acceptable level of safety and is available input data satisfactory? Risk-based fire safety engineering method: Qualitative design review, Quantitative risk analysis of design, Risk evaluation, Sensitivity analysis and Optimization. Fire event tree analysis, outputs: individual risk, average risk, degree of risk aversion, maximum consequence. Acceptable risk a function of benefit versus cost. May be viewed either to individual or society as whole. Risk perception depends on seriousness, controllability, necessity, exposure pattern °ree of volition. Use of risk conversion factors. Sensitivity analysis shows risk analysis methodology may lack reliability, might be overcome by calibration or standardization of input data, analyzing statistics, introducing a risk based acceptance criteria & defining & documenting risk analysis process. Measures for quantification of risk. Need for validation of input data, reliability of systems & devices, design fires, fire pre-burn times, human behaviour. Benefits of risk analysis compared to comparative analysis: holistic approach, well documented, identifies system weaknesses, highlights critical elements. |
| Harrington, Gregory E. Puchovsky, Milosh T. Performance-based Design Requirements for the First Edition of the NFPA Building Code. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
National Fire Protection Association. Safety for specific buildings can be accomplished more effectively by quantifying the level of safety required, and verifying the entire safety system will deliver rather than mere compliance with prescriptive code solutions. Application of calculation methods and computer models, concerns include limited input data, inappropriate application and improper interpretation of outputs. Difficulties interfacing computational models with safety regulations. Framework for performance-based design: 1. Establish safety goals. 2. Specify scenarios. 3. Verify proposed solutions. Safety goals set by society represent value judgments and cannot be compromised. Safety goals must be written in a manner such that compliance can be verified. Goals and objectives in the building code. Prescriptive limits to some performance solutions; e.g. stair dimensions. Fire safety performance criteria. Characteristics about the people and property to be protected. Hazard and risk scenarios, codes need to set limits to flexibility of performance-based approaches to reflect value judgments; e.g., redundancy and ongoing maintenance/verification. Code specifies 8 fire scenarios. |
| Bergeron, Denis Role of Acceptable Solutions in Evaluating Innovative Design Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Objective-based regulations supported by at least one set of acceptable solutions that is deemed to comply. Options for assessing innovative designs: 1. First principle approach, assessing against goals, objectives and performance requirements. 2. Benchmark approach, assessing against stated acceptable solutions. Currently there are limits to the ability to express performance requirements in measurable terms that can be verified at time of construction; e.g., sanitation, comfort, accessibility & certain aspects of fire safety. Components of performance system model: 1. Qualitative expression of goals, objectives and functional requirements of building as a whole & its systems & components. 2. Quantitative and measurable performance criteria and verification methods. Qualitative performance criteria apply when sufficient knowledge not available to support the expression of requirements in quantitative performance terms, e.g. implied performance of stairs designed in accordance with prescriptive requirements. Sanitary facilities case study, difficulties encountered with first principles approach, inability to quantify. Meaning of ‘acceptable solution’, different approaches. Innovative designs or alternative solutions. Role of acceptable solutions: 1. Simple, low-risk prescriptive option. 2. Benchmark for equivalency. 3. Implicit statements of society’s performance expectations. Canada will adopt objective-based standard as a transitional approach for fear that unquantified performance-based standard would be too disruptive to industry. Provides for acceptable solutions (deemed to comply) and alternative (innovative) solutions benchmarked against acceptable solutions. Alternative solutions measurable and verifiable against performance criteria will become a third option in the future. Decision making & fire risk assessment tools, FiRECAM and FIERA. |
| Bergeron, Denis Bowen, Bob Tubbs, Beth Rackliffe, Tony Acceptable Solutions CIB World Building Congress Wellington, NZ April 2001 |
Performance based or objective-based regulations. Acceptable solutions offer a baseline against which innovative designs or project specific designs can be compared. Role of acceptable solutions in performance-based regulations is very important. Different countries have different methods for handling acceptable solutions. Approaches to alternative solutions: benchmark approach or first principles approach. Prescriptive standards focused on a specific solution that contained an implicit level of risk or performance that was acceptable to society. Under performance-based regulations, acceptable solutions are considered to be a set of provisions which when met delivers the desired performance as intended by the objectives and performance requirements. Acceptable solutions may be prescriptive or performance based (including verification methods). Majority of users will probably continue to use prescriptive acceptable solutions due to familiarity and convenience. Establishment of acceptable solutions, number of acceptable solutions likely to increase with time. Acceptable solutions deemed to meet objectives and performance requirements. Alternative solutions accepted on a case-by-case basis and are not binding on other jurisdictions. Acceptable solutions are binding on all jurisdictions. Acceptance methods for alternative solutions: 1. Plan examination. 2. Checking of design calculations. 3. Performance certification. 4. Verification of in situ buildling work. 5. Other methods that might establish compliance with objectives and performance requirements. First principles approach places more responsibility on designer and approval authority, potential gaps in knowledge and methods of analysis, need to articulate all performance expectations. Benchmarking requires establishment of performance of acceptable solution. Importance of documentation of alternative solutions for future reference. Impact on operations and maintenance. |
| Barber, David Van Merkestein, Rudy Can the Approval of Performance Based Solutions be Improved? Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Inconsistencies in approvals have arisen between approval authorities for identical performance-based design solutions. Nature of building design process requires commitment to achieving Alternative Solution in preliminary design stage, requires proponent to have confidence in approval authority to give in principle approval and requires approval authority to have confidence in proponent being able to prove design. A lack of consistency in approvals has potential to damage fire engineering profession. Need for consistency and transparency. Guidelines promote stakeholder meetings, documentation and early involvement of the Approval Authority. Inconsistencies in approval framework required by Approval Authorities, key issues listed including application of inappropriate and inconsistent design guidance documents, insufficient clarity in level of expected documentation and supporting evidence, misunderstanding of evidence to show compliance, lack of understanding or knowledge of risk concepts, inability to assess full quantitative risk assessments, individual perceptions and biases of where occupant risk is highest. Inconsistent quality of fire engineering gives rise to lack of confidence in solutions. Examples of inconsistency in building design. Variations in levels of expertise of proponents for fire engineered solutions, registration system in Victoria and NSW, no requirements in other jurisdictions. Variations in expertise within Approval Authorities, peer review. Variations in legislation cause inconsistencies in approach. Summary of issues including early involvement of Authorities, better guidelines for approval, transparency in submissions, training / qualifications / accreditation, ongoing maintenance of solutions, avoiding state-by-state variations in standards, improved communications between stakeholders, recording of previous Alternative solutions as precedents. Peer review, used for structural engineering, transparent, potential conflicts of personalities & liability issues, needs options for choosing peer reviewer. Precedents, problems with state specific requirements, national technical forums involving stakeholders. Performance-based approaches require improved communications, peer review and a high degree of education in proponent and reviewer. |
| Harkin, Stephen Performance-based Codes: The Need for Improved Understanding of Statutory Interpretation. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Performance-based codes increase the stakes and potential burden on designers and approvers. Stronger need to develop an appreciation and understanding of statutory interpretation principles and legal maxims. PB Codes should be implemented pragmatically, stakeholders must understand responsibilities and must have access to appropriate training. Grading of designer and approvers based upon level or complexity of provisions and the decision-making framework. Compelling need for designers and approvers to be trained in the application of how the performance-based code is to function and how the provisions are to be interpreted and applied, to be tailored to needs of each group. Prior approval regulatory systems (Command and control systems). Granting of a permit, approval or licence does not mean the activity meets community standards and is no longer harmful, it merely means that the activity is decriminalized by the granting of the permit, etc. Breaches may be termed ‘welfare offences’. Different responsibilities of designer and approver, approver has broad duty to apply public policy in interests of community. Designer needs to apply the performance-based provisions on a practical basis, while also satisfying the performance requirements articulated in the client’s brief. Designers should not make decisions that amount to public policy: eg. degree of fire resistance required, dignified and equitable movement of people. A designer must be able to discern the preferred level of assessment appropriate to justify a solution. The approver must have an appropriate level of skill and understanding of statutory interpretation principles that they can apply to performance and prescriptive provisions as well as an ability to appreciate design methodology and whether requirements have been appropriately, adequately and correctly interpreted and applied by the designer. Approver should seek advice from the approver as to how a design will be assessed. A performance-based code does not deliver into the hands of designers the right to instruct approval authorities how a design is to be reviewed and approved. The ‘deeming’ device, ordinary meaning, legal meaning, statutory fiction. What happens when deemed to satisfy approach either imposes greater or lesser standards than the performance-based provisions. Performance based codes are expressed in general terms by their very nature. Approval interprets community expectations to give effect to public policy. Decision to accept alternative solution will be tested against provisions in enabling legislation for issuing permit. Onus for design complying on legislation falls on approver in first instance, however relevant designers will also need to account for their approach. Status of a performance-based code in legislative framework, purpose approach to interpretation. Possibility of tension between objects of code and objects of legislation. Benefits of improved statutory interpretation and knowledge of the legislative framework: better reasoned performance-based solutions, more robust decisions, decisions that demonstrate an understanding of interpretation principles. |
| Mowrer, Frederick W. Brannigan, Vince A Probabilistic Approach to Tenability Criteria Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Deterministic analysis: unique set of input parameters is expected to produce unique set of output conditions in accordance with well-known physical laws. Requires certainty of input & response. Fires have a large probabilistic element to prediction of consequences. Credible worst-case conditions is an approach, but may not produce cost-effective design. Tenability criteria tend to be set on average rather than worst case values. Designer has control over fuel load, unlike earthquakes where there is no control over load. Effects of mitigation strategies must also be taken into account. Use of event trees or state transitions. Stages of fire: 1. ignition and incipient fire, 2. growth on first item, 3. spread to secondary items, 4. full room involvement (flashover), 5. spread to other spaces/floors,6. spread to other buildings. Suggested maximum 10% chance of progression to next stage for each stage. Multiple fire-protection features provide defence-in-depth. Corresponding fire protection features for each stage above: 1. Control of heat sources/fuels/interactions & very early detection (ignition precursors). 2. Material properties/fire detection. 3. Fire detection/automatic suppression. 4. Automatic/manual suppression/ventilation control. 5. Fire resistance/ manual suppression. 6.Roof coverings/external facades/windows. Complicating factors: Smoke related to state of fire & location relative to fire, movement of persons through smoke environment. Carbon Monoxide example, uncertainty regarding expected concentrations and physiological impact on humans. Risk-based approach, design so that insignificant exposure levels expected and sub-incapacitating levels are anticipated, incapacitating levels are unlikely. |
| Angerd, Magdalena Frantzich, Hakan The Use of Uncertainty Analysis in Performance-Based Design Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Alternative solutions focus on general goals of performance-based code-focuses on verifying the performance of a solution rather than compliance with a prescribed method. Available safe egress time compared to required time for evacuation: factors, design fire, occupant density, occupant pre-movement time, etc. Verification methods: ranges from simple deterministic to complex Quantitative Risk Analysis (QRA). Probability of failure of different fire systems; e.g. sprinklers & smoke detectors; risk analysis can include uncertainty analysis. Event tree can be used for multiple event scenarios. Verification strategies for fire risk analysis, Frantzich. Extended QRA is used to ascertain sensitivity to uncertainties in input variables. Results from adopting a worst credible case approach depends greatly on fire scenario chosen; if too conservative then will be over designed, if under conservative then could be unsafe. Probabilistic approach using stochastic variables (variables that may vary randomly). Form of acceptance criterion for evacuation; all occupants must be able to evacuate safely in at least 90% of all cases, in the event of a fire. Monte Carlo simulation, multiple calculations with new sets of input data sampled from each distribution for input variables. Case study for retail buildings, variables room height, door width, floor area, types of alarm. Equation for safe evacuation time: Margin = time till untenable minus time for awareness minus time to prepare to move minus time to evacuate. Criteria for tenability: smoke layer falls below 1.6m+0.1xRoom Height, radiation level >2.5kW/m2, <10m visability. Fire growth assumed to follow ?t2 relationship. Awareness time: smoke detector or sensory cue time. Pre-movement time: factors include occupant insecurity, familiarity with building, group behaviour, threat of fire, available information. Evacuation time factors: occupant density, door width, building geometry. Untenable conditions occur faster with low ceiling height. Larger floor area found not to be significant. Spoken message better than alarm bell & assisting personnel better than spoken message. |
| Simenko, Peter Reliability Assessment of Vertical Egress Provisions in High-Rise Residential Buildings Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Problem solving structure: 1. Definition of problem. 2. Definition of decision criteria. 3. Identification of possible options. 4. Selection of the preferred option. Decision criteria is the most important. Fire safety goals and objectives—from BCA: protection of lives and protection of adjoining property. 50 occupants seem to be threshold number of occupants allowed in a room or a floor having only one exit. Means of escape modeled as a single fire protection feature with its capacity and reliability criteria. Efficiency = Capacity x Reliability. Consideration of various fire situations and fire hazard scenarios, focus on ‘high life-risk’ situations. Risk a function of severity of consequence and likelihood. Society perceives more strongly ‘single multiple fatality’ events than ‘multiple single fatality’ events. Quantitative measure of acceptable risk by Frantzich, voluntary risk can be 1000 greater than involuntary risk. Comparative approach using a reference building that meets code requirements. Importance of fire compartmentation, extends period for corrective action to reduce consequences, probability of compartment failure. Importance of external assistance. Importance of external assistance, effect of increasing height of building, control of fire, evacuation of victims, probability of failure of external assistance. Number of dependent persons (children, elderly, incapacitated) has significant impact on risk of death. Increase in floor area within a compartment increases risk by power of 2, increased number of occupants and increased likelihood of fire. Prescriptive requirements: single stair must not serve more than 50 occupants per floor, Failure probability of an egress solution modified by self-closing or smoke doors and stair/lobby pressurization. Probability that doors are left open. Cumulative effect dependent on the number of doors till failure and number of stairs. Limitations on stair pressurization systems. Common-cause failure, e.g. defects in product, installation, maintenance, vulnerability of over-reliance on a ‘single measure’, overcome by ‘defence in depth’ protection principle: redundancy, diversity & independence of fire precautions for critical life safety components. Should include defences against human errors. Complex problem, lack of information and data—alternative solutions should be conservative using a defense in depth philosophy. |
| Horasan, Mahmut B.N. Caird Ramsay, G. Taylor, Peter T. Reverse Engineering as a Tool in Fire Safety Engineering Assessments Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Reverse engineering is the process of recreating a design by analyzing a final product. ASET/RSET (Available safe egress time/required safe egress time) analysis. Difficulties in determining RSET (detection, pre-movement and movement) times due to varying characteristics of occupants and numerous uncertainties. Legitimate use of reverse engineering techniques. Unacceptable use of reverse engineering, e.g., to select a design fire which does not represent a realistic and/or credible scenario. Australian Fire Safety Guidelines provides for reverse engineering in context of smoke spread, flame spread and detection, warning and suppression. Fire protection systems & how they relate to aspects of fire and outcomes. Flow chart for reverse engineering process. Criteria established by Fire Safety Engineering Brief Team: covers trial design, type and extent (level) of documentation. Example of smoke extraction for small shopping center. Reverse engineering in relation to evacuation: pre-movement comprises response period and delay causing behaviour period. Solutions often conservative due to uncertainty. Required time value approach. Evacuation time periods and relevant fire safety system components. Example of application to high school to shorten pre-movement times, use of school PA system, other factors included management, emergency procedures, occupant training and education and maintenance. Example of application to hospital ward, manipulation of movement time by adding extra staff from other wards. |
| Lundin, Johan Frantzich, Hakan Cost-Benefit and Risk Analysis—Basis for Decisions in the Fire Safety Design Process Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Performance-based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods Society of Fire Protection Engineers 2002 |
Reasons for departing from a deemed to satisfy solution include a desire to achieve a more cost effective design or that the fire protection measures may be incompatible with the architectural design, occupancy or other aspects of a building. Prescriptive solutions suffice for simple buildings. Cost effectiveness of a solution varies depending upon the perspective of the particular person; e.g., the contractor who builds a building as compared to the owner of the building. Contractor is more influenced by short term costs during the contract. Owner takes into account both building cost and costs associated with use of the building. Fire protection solutions may not necessarily be optimized because of the limited time and money available for analysis and potential conflict with non-fire safety related characteristics of the building. Solution need only satisfy demands and expectations; i.e. that works with all the other non-fire safety related objectives. Total cost of fire protection comprises: cost of fire damage, cost of fire protection, insurance cost, development and enforcement of fire safety codes and public services. Cost of fire damage: willingness to pay principle, risk premium for high risk occupations, analysis of previously implemented safety-improving measures. Cost of damage to property, cost of interruption of production and hidden costs. Damage to property includes fire and smoke damage to buildings, machinery and stock. Costs of loss of production include salaries, loss of profits, fixed running costs, loss of market share, production by sub-contractors, etc. Hidden costs difficult to insure & include increased marketing, recruiting, rehabilitation, time to administer, etc. Cost of fire protection: technical & organizational, re-investment cost & maintenance. Potential benefits: increased utility of spaces within building, reduced cost of damage, reduced insulation of structural elements and ventilation trunks, reduced number of dampers, reduced requirements for glass partitions in boundaries, reduced number of stairways. Cost-benefit analysis method. Life-cycle cost analysis. Net present value method. Real interest rate of 5%. Calculation of cost of damage. Insurance cost. Case study of an office building. Fire safety engineered solutions. |